Ryan Morse (BHS class
of '04)
In antebellum Boston,
crime was a serious issue. With the freedom of
blacks and the high crime rates during the antebellum
time period, many people believed that most of
the crime in Boston at that time was caused by
the poor black population, by unchecked intemperance,
and sudden moral lapses. In reality the major
causes of crime in Boston at that time were not
due to poverty as much as intemperance and moral
lapses.
Poverty was thought
to be the most prominent cause of crime. However,
this sentiment influenced many people to form
voluntary associations to aid the poor and keep
them out of prison. Their reasoning was that the
poor need or want what others possess and will
resort to crime to achieve these things. On the
surface this connection seems solid, but when
it is studied more closely, it becomes evident
that it may not be the best perspective from which
to view the situation.
Of particular interest
are the lists of people
receiving financial aid payments in 1839, from
the city of Boston. Records of the aid distributed
revealed that 67% of the African American population
living in Boston’s wards 2 through 6 who
were receiving aid were women. Also of interest
are lists of people
receiving outdoor relief in 1842 from the city
of Boston. These lists show that a small percentage
of the people receiving aid were African Americans
and that of this small percentage the majority
were women. It may have been theorized that because
many African American women were receiving aid,
many were poor, and as a result, there must be
a high percentage of African American women in
prisons. In reality, the average number of women
in state prisons in the Northeast was 12.25 (including
women of all nationalities). The one exception
to this was Sing Sing, an all women’s prison
in New York. An argument could be made that women
were typically placed in houses of correction
rather than state penitentiaries, explaining the
low numbers of women in prisons. Even so, the
average number of women placed into houses of
correction was 24 per state in 1839. The main
houses of correction in Massachusetts were located
in Middlesex, Essex, and Suffolk Counties. This
means that there was a shockingly low population
of women in each of the three facilities, an average
of eight women per location in Massachusetts.
[1] This is a far cry from the hundreds of men
placed in prisons per state, per year. As of January
1, 1821, there
were roughly 147 black male inmates in the Massachusetts
State Prison, while there were 2,140 white male
inmates. If poverty did in fact create crime,
the majority of prisoners would be black, since
they were the majority who received financial
aid payments, therefore labeling them as the poor
population. As is evident by the figures presented,
this is not a true statement.
In such cases it is
also essential to view the types of crimes committed.
Crimes such as arson, vandalism, and destruction
of property, cannot be associated with poverty.
This is simply because they are of no relation.
There is no reason to believe that a poverty stricken
individual is more likely to vandalize property.
Crimes such as theft, robbery, assault, and murder
should merit some attention in matters of linking
poverty and crime. These crimes are potentially
fueled by the lack of goods and the need to obtain
those goods. Theft and robbery are directly related
to poverty for obvious reasons. Assault and murder
can only be linked when there is an intention
to rob.
A large portion of the
battle between poverty and crime is the effect
of certain voluntary associations whose goals
were to see that these criminals were being treated
fairly, to prevent crime by attacking it at its
roots, or to help reform free convicts and therefore
improve society as a whole. One of these associations
was the Prison Discipline Society whose goal it
was to ensure that the prisoners were treated
fairly and kept in livable conditions.
The Prison Discipline
Society of Boston Massachusetts played a huge
role in the development of the prison system in
the United States from 1825 to 1854. They
established their own constitution by which the
members were to follow. Through extensive
research and visits to prisons, the Prison Discipline
Society was able to influence national and international
governments to improve their facilities and practices.
Many prominent members of society were associated
with the Prison Discipline society, including
Alexis de Tocqueville and Gustav de Beaumont,
both of whom contributed to spreading the program
to Europe. The Prison Discipline Society examined
prisons in the United States, Canada, England,
France, and Australia. They also inspected prisons
in countries as remote as Malta, Sardinia, and
Egypt. One of the pioneers in these prison visits
was Louis Dwight, the founder of the Prison Discipline
Society.
The organization was
founded on June 30, 1825 with the intentions of
promoting the improvement of public prisons. They
developed branches in many states as well as some
foreign countries. A membership fee was developed
in order to provide funding for their efforts.
Membership was open to everyone for an annual
fee of $2 or a lifetime membership fee of $30.
There were twelve members on the Board of Managers,
six of which were clergy, who paid $10 annually
or a lifetime fee of $100. The only requirement
for membership is that each person paid the annual
fee. The society did not specify whether race
was a deciding factor in acceptance into the organization.
[2]
The society addressed
many issues which they felt affected the conditions
in which the prisoners lived. These issues were
plainly stated in a list titled, “Subjects
of Inquiry Concerning Prisons.” This list
addresses nineteen issues concerning the treatment
of prisoners, the facilities in which the prisoners
are kept, and the rights of the prisoners. These
issues included such important topics as day and
night cells, location of prisons, hospitals, food,
clothing, exercise, and punishments, as well as
many others. Also on this list is the “Admission
of Prisoner’s Friends,” concerning who
is admitted, at what times, and under what circumstances.
The first publication
of their findings covered January 1st through
June 2nd of 1826. Six editions were published
in this year, followed by three editions of the
second volume, and two editions of the third and
fourth volumes. When the fifth and sixth volumes
were published, they were all combined in a single
volume edition, of which 2000 copies were made.
This volume included all 29 reports published
by the Prison Discipline Society. The publication
entitled “Reports
of the Prison Discipline Society of Boston”
included reviews of prisons they visited and new
techniques to improve prison life and health of
the prisoners.
The Society for Aiding
Discharged Convicts was involved in reforming
former convicts who had served their time and
were released. It
was formed in April of 1846. Once again, anyone
who paid the annual membership fee was considered
a member, regardless of race, religion, or ethnicity.
Being a national organization, they had state
agents in many of the northeastern states. The
agent for Massachusetts was Dr. Augustine Taft
who led all involvement of the organization in
Massachusetts state prisons.
The purpose of the organization
was to give discharged convicts another chance
at life. They began by obtaining the names of
convicts being discharged each month. They checked
the history of each prisoner, including their
conduct while in prison, their characteristics,
and their trade skills; race or ethnicity was
not a factor in the aid distributed. When the
convict was released, they were allowed to apply
for aid from the society. If they qualify, the
society found jobs for the convicts and on many
occasions assisted them in other ways. The convicts
were required to live in a boarding house where
they were allowed no contact with their former
life or their former criminal contacts. They also
give some convicts clothing, food, and lend them
small but substantial amounts of money. Many of
the convicts wrote to the society to update them
on their progress and to express their sincere
gratitude. Many of the convicts began to return
the money lent to them promptly and faithfully.
Many citizens were opposed
to the acceptance of convicts back into society.
They were fearful of relapses and sudden waves
of crime. To this, the society argued that the
convicts would be under strong moral obligation
to make amends, by the society, by the public,
and by his conscience. The rate of convicts recommitted
to prison was 15%, which was considered a small
portion of those released. The society aided 90
convicts from April, 1846 to January 1847. The
society believed that the money used to aid the
released convicts would more than make up for
itself in the lack of damages created by any released,
unaided convicts and the manpower which would
be used to control them.
Beyond the fair treatment
of prisoners were the associations who aimed to
abolish capital punishment in Massachusetts. Much
of the support for this cause came as a result
of convictions of criminals for crimes caused
by moral lapses. Many people believed that some
of the convicted criminals had experienced moral
lapses and were not likely to commit crimes upon
their release from jail.
Moral lapses result
in all types of crimes, some of which include
theft, murder, rape, and vandalism. In most cases
the church was essentially responsible for reforming
criminals who became victims of moral lapses.
Church officials and other interested parties
would hold meetings
to discuss topics such as moral lapse and prisoner’s
rights. There were also numerous voluntary
associations who fought for the abolishment of
the death penalty because of the possibility that
a criminal who had experienced a moral lapse,
was an otherwise law abiding citizen.
One of the most influential
associations for this purpose was The Massachusetts
Society for the Abolition of Capital Punishment.
The
organization established a constitution in which
it stated its purpose and its goals. The society
declared that there would be no restrictions placed
upon membership to the society. This left membership
open to blacks as well as whites. The society
also put no restrictions on those they aimed to
help. They believed that they were required to
abolish capital punishment in Massachusetts. The
abolishment would not be selective. They aimed
to free all people of the horrors of capital punishment,
regardless of race, religion, or gender.
In addition to the voluntary
associations devoted tothe abolition of capital
punishment, there was also a newspaper, The
Hangman. It advocated for prisoners who had
been wrongly accused or were otherwise good citizens.
It published advertisements for meetings of voluntary
associations who promoted the same cause. It also
published advertisements promoting the sales of
the paper and encouraging subscription. One
of these advertisements outlined the release dates
and prices of upcoming issues.
The theory that crime
is a direct result of poverty does not seem to
have much to back it, but two questions remain:
what is the cause of crime? What is the cause
of poverty? One argument says that crime creates
poverty. At first glance this proposal seems improbable;
how can crime create poverty? Instead of viewing
crime as a means to fuel substantial need, perhaps
it is better viewed as a means to fuel an addiction.
Instead of resorting to crime to feed or clothe
themselves, people of antebellum Boston committed
crimes to feed expensive habits. Stolen goods
or money would be used to buy expensive products
such as alcohol or tobacco. The peddlers of these
substances would make profits on the stolen wealth
of others, yet not enough to be considered wealthy.
The criminals themselves would spend their earnings
on these substances, would be no better off than
before, and in most cases would be caught and
jailed. The victims of these crimes find no consolation
even when the criminals are caught. Their wealth
had already been spent and could not be reimbursed.
Therefore, the victims slowly become poor, the
criminals fed their addictions, and the merchants
of these goods made enough money to live comfortably.
Overall, crime is simply a redistribution of wealth,
from the rich upper and middle classes to the
poorer merchant class.
Alcoholism was a major
problem in antebellum Boston, resulting in the
creation of many voluntary associations and movements
to make progress towards temperance. Alcoholism
caused many problems including crime. It also
contributed greatly to poverty, as previously
described. It also caused cases of domestic violence,
aggression towards law enforcement officials,
and public drunkenness, all of which was cause
for imprisonment. Intemperance was identified
as a huge contribution to crime, and as a result,
many voluntary associations were formed to push
for temperance.
The most important of
all were the black temperance societies who worked
to reform society in order to reduce crime and
poverty. The first organized black temperance
societies were the New Haven Temperance Society
of the People of Color and the New York Temperance
Society, which were established in 1829.
There were other smaller
organizations which contributed to the colored
temperance movement. One of these groups was the
Delevan State’s Temperance Union. This association
met in irregular patterns, especially in the north.
An
advertisement for one of their meetings was published
in The Liberator on June 30, 1848.
The announcement told of the purpose of the meeting,
who would be speaking, and the issues they would
be touching upon.
Colored temperance societies
were not confined to Massachusetts. The New York
temperance Society was a very large, well respected
gathering of temperance blacks of the time. This
society specifically helped blacks and extended
its aid to no other group of people. Agents from
this organization traveled to smaller cities and
towns with hopes of gaining support and starting
new, smaller societies. Many of these meetings
were held in small towns where the society would
most likely gain support. These meetings were
simply ways of spreading their ideas and gaining
support, which worked quite well. Origen Bacheler,
an agent for the New York Temperance Society,
reported
his success in a statement written on December
3, 1831. He makes a point to report a spike
in support by giving a detailed account of the
amount of new support the society had received
on different occasions.
There were also many
occasions in which the colored temperance societies
sponsored dinners or hosted fairs to promote their
cause. Announcements were published in local papers
such as The Liberator, for dinners like
the one held on August 1, 1839. A Temperance
fair announcement also appeared
in The Liberator on October 27, 1843.
Events such as these were common and were often
announced in the Liberator and other black-sympathizing
newspapers. There was also a movement towards
a temperance boarding house. A
meeting was held at which the people in attendance
could subscribe to live in the boarding house,
in an alcohol free environment in order to become
sober.
At the Black National
Convention in 1833, members concluded that intemperance
was hindering the progress of the blacks as a
people. They believed that intemperance was threatening
the nation’s social, civil, and religious
organizations. They believed that strict moral
reform would cure the nation of its intemperance
problems. It was proposed at the Third National
Convention that by enforcing strict temperance
principles, blacks would gain the respect of the
whites and therefore diminish prejudicial feelings
held by whites. They also considered removing
the undesirable blacks from the neighborhoods,
but quickly eliminated this option because they
felt it would give strength to the argument that
blacks were not capable of living in freedom.
An interesting idea was presented in The Transformation
of the Black Temperance Movement, 1827-1854: An
Interpretation, by Donald Yacovone and was
stated as follows:
